Microbes Encapsulated within Crosslinkable Polymers

ABSTRACT

The invention relates to porous films comprising crosslinked electrospun hydrogel fibers. Viable microbes are encapsulated within the crosslinked electrospun hydrogel fibers. The crosslinked electrospun hydrogel fibers are water insoluble and permeable. The invention also relates to methods of making and using such porous films.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No.61/043,516, filed Apr. 9, 2008, which is incorporated herein byreference in its entirety.

This invention was made with Government support under contract numberDE-AC02-98CH10886, awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. TheGovernment has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Electrospinning is an atomization process whereby the interactionsbetween an electrostatic field and a fluid are exploited to formnanoscale and microscale polymer fibers. These fibers can be collectedas an interconnected web containing relatively thin fibers. Porous filmsresulting from these fibers have very large surface area to volumeratios, high permeability and small pore size that make them appropriatefor a wide range of applications. Therefore these films are consideredto be an ideal media to fix or encapsulate bacteria.

Earlier attempts to encapsulate microbes in nanofibers have been made byelectrospinning various polymers. See for example, Salalha et al.,Nanotechnology 17, 4675-4681 (2006); and Gensheimer et al., AdvancedMaterials 19, 2480-2482 (2007).

The previous attempts typically involved bulk immobilization in gels.Either the microbe did not survive or if it did the thick bulk polymerlacked porosity and was not easy to work with due to its thickness. Whenencapsulation via electrospinning was attempted, either, the microbe didnot survive the process of encapsulation; or, if the microbe didsurvive, the final material was soluble in aqueous solution. A watersoluble biohybrid material has minimal use since an aqueous environmentwould lead to disintegration of the material, thereby releasing themicrobes. Therefore, these previous attempts to create usefulencapsulated microbes produced materials having little practical value.

Thus there is a need for a process whereby bio-hybrid/bio-functionalmaterials encapsulating microbes can be reliably formed while preservingthe viability of the microbes, and wherein the final material isinsoluble in aqueous solution.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one embodiment, the invention relates to a porous film comprisingcrosslinked electrospun hydrogel fibers. The crosslinked electrospunhydrogel fibers are water insoluble and permeable Viable microbes areencapsulated within the crosslinked electro spun hydrogel fibers.

In another embodiment, the invention relates to a method ofencapsulating microbes within a polymer. The method comprises (a)providing a mixture of microbes and a polymer, wherein the polymer iscapable of forming a hydrogel, is water soluble, and is crosslinkable;(b) electrospinning the polymer to form electrospun fibers, wherein themicrobes are encapsulated within the electrospun fibers; and (c)crosslinking the electrospun fibers to form electrospun hydrogel fibersthat are water insoluble and permeable. The fibers contain viablemicrobes therein.

In a third embodiment, the invention relates to a method of crosslinkingelectrospun fibers comprising microbes encapsulated within theelectrospun fibers. In the method, the electrospun fibers arecrosslinked in a liquid polyol. After crosslinking, the electrospunfibers form a hydrogel that is insoluble and permeable, and thatencapsulates viable microbes.

In a fourth embodiment, the invention relates to a method for removingpollutants from an aqueous environment, the method comprising contactingthe pollutants with a porous film that comprises crosslinked electrospunhydrogel fibers. Microbes are encapsulated within the crosslinkedelectrospun hydrogel fibers. The crosslinked electrospun hydrogel fibersare water insoluble and permeable, and encapsulate microbes that areviable and capable of bioremediation.

In a fifth embodiment, the invention relates to a biosensor comprisingmicrobes encapsulated within crosslinked electrospun hydrogel fibers.Encapsulated microbes are viable and capable of generating a signal inresponse to a chemical compound. The crosslinked electrospun hydrogelfibers are water insoluble and permeable.

In a sixth embodiment, the invention relates to a method of regeneratinghealthy bioflora. The method comprises implanting into thegastrointestinal tract of patients in need thereof a porous film thatcomprises crosslinked electrospun hydrogel fibers. Microbes that areviable and capable of regenerating healthy bioflora in thegastrointestinal tract of the patient are encapsulated within thefibers. The crosslinked electrospun hydrogel fibers are water insolubleand permeable.

In a seventh embodiment, the invention relates to an electrodecomprising microbes encapsulated within crosslinked electrospun hydrogelfibers. The encapsulated microbes are viable and are capable of electrongeneration or utilization. Such electrodes are useful, for example, inmicrobial fuel cells and waste water treatment. The crosslinkedelectrospun hydrogel fibers are water insoluble and permeable.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1. A schematic describing the different stages of the process thatwere undertaken to generate the biohybrid material. Further, the chartshows the various stages at which the fibers were characterized andanalyzed.

FIG. 2. SEM images of the electrospun F127-DMA/PEO blend scaffolds withdifferent weight ratio: (A) F-DMA 13 wt %, PEO 1 wt % (13:1); (B) F-DMA13 wt %: PEO 2 wt % (13:2); (C) and (d) F-OMA 13 wt %: PEO 3 wt %(13:3). Note (D) is the higher magnification image of the (c). Bars, 20μm (A, B, C), 1 μm (D)

FIG. 3. (A), (B) Surface and (C) edge images of the FDMA fibrousscaffold obtained by lyophilization after PEO extraction. Bars, 20 μm(A), 10 μm (B), 100 μm (C).

FIG. 4. Fiber diameter distribution of (A) FDMA/PEO blend fibrousscaffold electrospun from 13 wt % FDMA/PEO aqueous solution withFDMA/PEO weight ratio of 13:3 and (B) cross-linked FDMA fibrous scaffoldafter PEO extraction.

FIG. 5. TG analyses of different samples: (a) F-DMA powder, (b)F-DMA/PEO blend scaffold, (c) FDMA cross-linked scaffold and (d) PEOpowder.

FIG. 6. Confocal images of stained and fluorescent P. fluorescens cells(the red and green spots) (A) before electrospinning. (B) and (C) showthe morphology of the bacteria inside the dry electrospun FDMA/PEO blendfibers. (O) Image of stained and fluorescent Z. mobilis cells in dryelectrospun FDMA/PEO blend fibers. SEM micrographs of uranyl acetatestained P. fluorescens cells after electrospinning (E). Bars, 10 μm (A),1 μm (B), 20 μm (C), 2 μm (D), and 1 μm (E).

FIG. 7. Confocal images of Z. mobilis cells (A) before electrospinning;(B) immediately after electrospinning; and after storage at 4° C. undersaturated humidity, with the exclusion of light for (C) 1 day; (0) 3days; and (E) 7 days. Bars, 20 μm.

FIG. 8. The confocal microscopy of Z. mobilis within the cross-linkedFDMA fibers shows that about 40% of the bacteria were still alive afterthe electrospinning and cross-linking process. Before the imaging, thefibers encapsulated with bacteria were cross-linked, rinsed with DIwater and stained with LIVE/DEAD® BacLight™ bacterial viability kits.Note that the cross-linked FDMA fibers were still wet when the picturewas taken. Bar, 10 μm.

FIG. 9. SEM images of Z. mobilis in the cross-linked FDMA fibers.Normally, the cross-linked FDMA fibers are multi-layered. Mono-layer ofZ. mobilis cells encapsulated FDMA fibers is shown here, because itprovides better contrast between the microorganism and fiber. Arrows inimage (A) indicate the position of the bacteria. Magnification isindicated individually on data bar at the bottom of micrograph. Bars, 10μm (A), 1 μm (B, C).

FIG. 10. Confocal microscopic images of GFP-E. coli on wet cross-linkedFDMA fibers. The fibers encapsulated with GFP-E. coli was cross-linkedand rinsed with deionized water, and imaged under the confocalmicroscope immediately. Bars, 10 μm (A), 1 μm (B).

FIG. 11 is a schematic of an electrospinning system.

FIG. 12: Confocal images of GFP-E. coli (A) before and (B) afterelectrospinning. The fluorescence property of GFP-E. coli makes cellsencapsulated in the electrospun F127 DMA/PEO fibers visible. Bars, 20μm.

FIG. 13: The growth of electrospun-immobilized and free P. fluorescensin an Erlenmeyer flask containing 50 ml of sterile growth media asmonitored by absorption at 600 nm against a culture medium blank.Controls, 1, 2 and 3 are from inoculation of 50, 100 and 250 μl of afresh culture. Control 4 and Electrospun samples denote the growthobserved when inoculated with 100 μl of polymer solution containing thebacteria just prior to and immediately after electrospinning.

FIG. 14: A photo of the un-inoculated culture medium and the fiveinoculated flasks showing the growth of P. fluorescens after 42 hours ofgrowth (data shown in previous FIG. 13). Controls 1, 2 and 3 are frominoculation of 50, 100 and 250 μl of a fresh culture. Control 4 andElectrospun sample denote flasks inoculated with 100 μl of polymersolution containing the bacteria just prior to and immediately afterelectrospinning.

FIG. 15: Schematic showing the synthesis of F127-DMA.

FIG. 16: Amount of ethanol produced by Z. mobilis after inoculation ofthe sterile medium (composition provided in methods section) withvarious pre- and post electrospun microbial samples. The amount ofethanol produced by the electrospun samples (immediately and afterstorage) is slightly lower than that produced by the control (freeculture, pre-electrospinning). This could be explained via the longerlag phase growth experienced by the electrospun samples, therebyproviding more aeration and leading to lower ethanol production.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is based on the discovery of a method to crosslinkelectrospun polymeric fibers that encapsulate microbes so that (i) thefibers are permeable to, and insoluble in, water, and (ii) the fibersencapsulate viable microbes therein. The invention includes crosslinkedpolymeric porous films made from such microbe-encapsulating fibers, andmethods of making and using such films such that moisture is availableto the microbes, even though the fibers and films are water insoluble.The films of the invention are usefully thought of as artificialbiofilms.

Methods of Making the Crosslinkable Polymers of the Invention Polymers

In one aspect, the invention relates to methods of encapsulatingmicrobes within the fiber structure of a polymer. The polymer used inthe methods of the invention is any polymer that is water soluble, andis crosslinkable. Such polymers are well known in the art.

The polymer must also be capable of forming a hydrogel after beingelectrospun and crosslinked. A hydrogel is a network of polymer chainsthat is water-insoluble and is super absorbent (e.g., the hydrogel cancontain more than 99% water). Hydrogels also possess a high degree offlexibility very similar to natural tissue, due to their significantwater content.

Some examples of suitable polymers include glycosaminoglycans andproteins. Preferred polymers, however, are polyethers. The polymers canbe used by themselves, or as copolymers, as well as mixtures of polymersand copolymers.

Some examples of suitable polyethers include polyethylene oxide,polypropylene oxide, mixtures thereof, and co-polymers thereof. Themolecular weight of the polymer, e.g., polyethylene oxide orpolypropylene oxide, is not critical as long as the polymer can beelectrospun, e.g., is soluble; can be, or is modified to be,crosslinkable, and can form a hydrogel upon being crosslinked. Forexample, the molecular weight can be as low as about 1,000, moretypically as low as about 3,000, and even more typically as low as about6,000. The molecular weight can be as high as about 1,000,000, moretypically as high as about 80,000, and even more typically as high asabout 60,000.

It should be noted that poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) generally refers tohigher molecular mass polymers, e.g., a molecular mass above 9,000g/mol, and sometimes above 20,000 g/mol. Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)generally refers to oligomers and lower molecular mass polymers, e.g., amolecular mass below 9,000 g/mol, and sometimes below 20,000 g/mol.Polyoxyethylene (POE) generally refers to a polymer of any molecularmass. In this specification, the terms polyethylene oxide andpoly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) are used interchangeably to mean any of theabove polymers having the molecular weight provided.

An example of a polyether copolymer is a polyethyleneoxide-polypropylene oxide terpolymer or triblock copolymer. A suitabletriblock copolymer of polyethylene oxide-polypropylene oxide isPEO₉₉-PPO₆₇-PEO₉₉ DMA (FDMA), which has the same characteristics of, andis available as, Pluronic® F127 from BASF Corporation.

Suitable glycosaminoglycans are also known in the art. An example of asuitable glycosaminoglycan is hyaluronic acid. The glycosaminoclycansmay be modified to contain crosslinkable groups. Suitable thiol-modifiedhyaluronic acids include, for example, Glycosil™, Heprasil™, andGelin-S™, all of which are available from Glycosan Biosystems.

Suitable proteins are also known in the art. A suitable protein includescollagen, preferably denatured collagen; e.g., gelatin and elastin. Theprotein may be modified to contain crosslinkable groups. A suitablethio-modified collagen is Gelin-S™, which is available from GlycosanBiosystems.

The polymers either contain, or are modified to contain, at least twocrosslinkable functional groups. The functional groups depend on themethod of crosslinking, as will be discussed below.

Some examples of suitable crosslinkable functional groups includehydroxyl groups, thiol groups, and amino groups. Other suitablecrosslinkable functional groups include carbonyloxyalkyl groups,carbonylchloride groups, and carbonylbromide groups. Some examples ofcarbonyloxyalkyl groups include carbonyloxymethyl and carbonyloxyethyl.

Another crosslinkable functional group is a vinyl group. A vinyl groupmay be added to polyethylene oxide and polypropylene oxide by reactionwith, for example, acryloyl chloride or methacryloyl chloride. Thepreparation of Pluronic® F127 having a methacrylate group at eachterminus (F127-DMA) is described in Cohn, et al., Biomacromolecules,6(3): 1168-1175 (2005).

Electrospinning

A crosslinkable polymer encapsulating microbes is produced byelectrospinning. The polymer contains, or is modified to contain,crosslinkable functional groups, and may be any of the polymers,described above.

In one embodiment, electrospinning is accomplished by providing aprecursor mixture containing suitable microbes and a suitablecrosslinkable polymer in a suitable electrospinning medium. Theprecursor mixture, or any part of it, may be prepared or obtained froman outside source.

The ratio of the polymer to microbes in the precursor mixture is notcritical, but will affect the average number of microbes encapsulated inthe electrospun fibers. For example, the ratio might be about 1 partpolymer to about 2, about 6, or about 10 parts microbes.

The electrospinning of an aqueous solution of certain polymers, e.g.,FDMA, into fibers may be improved by blending poly(ethylene oxide) orpoly(propylene oxide) (e.g., poly(ethylene oxide) M_(w)=900 kDa,Sigma-Aldrich Inc.) with the polymer to facilitate fiber formation. Themolecular weight of the polymer added to facilitate fiber formation isnot critical, and may be any of the molecular weights described abovefor the functionalized polymer. The ratio of functionalized polymer,described above, to the poly(ethylene oxide) or poly(propylene oxide)added to improve electrospinning is higher than about 13/1, e.g., about13/3 or 13/5. The blended poly(ethylene oxide) or poly(propylene oxide)is not crosslinked, and is optionally removed by rinsing with water,preferably deionized water.

The electrospinning medium is such that, after electrospinning, themicrobes become encapsulated in the polymeric fibers, and at least aportion or all of the microbes remain viable. In addition to themicrobes and polymer, the medium comprises water, preferably deionizedwater. Optionally, the aqueous medium further comprises other solventsthat can be electrospun, and that do not harm the microbes, for example,with respect to their function and/or viability. Other solvents include,for example, glycerol and sugar alcohols. Some suitable sugar alcoholsinclude, for example, xylitol, mannitol and lactitol. Some examples ofprecursor mixtures comprise a suitable microbe and a suitable polymer inan aqueous medium, a sol-gel or particulate suspension of the polymer.

The precursor mixture comprising the polymer and the microbes is thenelectrospun. Elecrospinning is well known in the art. See, for example,Chu et al., U.S. Pat. No. 7,172,765 and Li et al., Advanced Materials16(14), 1151-1170 (2004).

An example of an apparatus for producing the electrospun hydrogel fibersof the invention, which uses a multiple jet electrospinning system, isshown schematically in FIG. 11. Referring to FIG. 11, the precursormixture is supplied by a micro-flow pump system 1. The pump system 1 isoperatively connected to a computer 2 which controls the flow rate ofthe precursor mixture to selected spinnerets by controlling pressure orflow rate See, for example, Ji et al., Langmuir 22:1321-1328 (2006).

The diameters of the fibers can be controlled by varying the parametersof electrospinning. For example, varying the flow rate of the precursormixture affects the diameter of the hydrogel fibers. Typically, thefibers are about 0.2 to about 20 microns in diameter, more typically thefibers are about 0.6 to about 5 microns in diameter.

Preferably, the diameter of the electrospun fibers is just large enoughto fully encapsulate microbes within the fiber structure. Microbes havevarious sizes. For example, microbes typically vary in size from about0.5 to about 4.0 microns; although other microbes may be as small asabout 0.1 to about 0.2 microns. The optimized process conditions lead tofibers being only slightly larger (e.g., about 50%, preferably about 10%larger) than the average size of the microbes being encapsulated,thereby encapsulating the microbes with only a thin layer of polymericmaterial.

The electrospinning process results in the fibers forming a permeablefilm with an open pore structure. These films have very large surfacearea to volume ratios. Prior to crosslinking, the fibers are soluble inwater.

The parameters of electrospinning can be varied to obtain films of acertain morphology. For example, the flow rate or collection time of theprecursor mixture can be varied to control film thickness, pore size,and film density.

Crosslinking

The electrospun fibers are crosslinked to render them water insolubleand to form a hydrogel. Crosslinking is achieved by contacting thefibers with a crosslinking agent in a liquid polyol. Examples ofsuitable liquid polyols include glycerol and sugar alcohols. Somesuitable sugar alcohols include, for example, xylitol, mannitol andlactitol. In some embodiments, up to about 70% of the liquid polyol byvolume is replaced with water, preferably up to about 50% of the liquidpolyol by volume is replaced with water, most preferably up to about 30%of the liquid polyol by volume is replaced with water.

In one embodiment wherein the polymer contains vinyl groups, thecrosslinking agent is a redox system that produces a free radicalinitiator. Suitable redox systems are known in the art. For example, asuitable redox system comprises a persulfate salt, e.g., ammoniumpersulfate, and a metabisulfite salt, e.g., sodium metabisulfite.Another suitable redox system comprises a persulfate salt, e.g.,ammonium persulfate, and a combination of a ferrous salt, e.g., ferroussulfate, and a vinylic carboxylic acid, e.g., ascorbic acid. A preferredredox system comprises ammonium persulfate and a combination of ferroussulfate and ascorbic acid.

The electrospun fibers are contacted with the crosslinking agent underconditions that allow crosslinking to occur at a reasonable rate, thatdo not degrade the electrospun fibers, and that are not harmful to themicrobes. For example, the crosslinking may be carried out overnightwith ammonium persulfate, ferrous sulfate and ascorbic acid at aboutroom temperature in glycerol/water 70/30 by volume.

In another embodiment, the crosslinking agent comprises a crosslinkermolecule. Crosslinker molecules comprise at least two functional groups,preferably two terminal functional groups.

The functional groups of the crosslinker molecule react with thecrosslinkable groups of the polymer. For example, if the polymer hascarbonyloxyalkyl groups (—C(═O)OR), carbonylchloride groups (—C(═O)Cl),or carbonylbromide groups(—C(═O)Br), the crosslinker molecule might havehydroxyl groups, amino groups, or thiol groups. Alternatively, if thepolymer has hydroxyl groups, amino groups, or thiol groups, thecrosslinker molecule might have carbonyloxyalkyl groups,carbonylchloride groups, or carbonylbromide groups. Examples ofcarbonyloxyalkyl groups include carbonyloxymethyl andcarbonyloxyacrylethyl.

Preferably, the two functional groups of a crosslinker molecule areseparated by an alkyl chain. The minimum number of atoms in these alkylchains is two. The maximum number of atoms in these alkyl chains isabout 300, preferably about 275, and most preferably about 250.Preferably, the crosslinker molecule has one heteroatom (e.g., O, S, NH)separating at least some of the pairs of carbon atoms in the chainPreferably, the crosslinker molecule has one heteroatom (e.g., O, S, NH)separating all of the pairs of carbon atoms in the chain.

In another embodiment, the crosslinker molecule is formaldehyde.Formaldehyde crosslinks through a —CH₂— linkage. See, for example,Solomon et al., PNAS 82, 6470-6475 (Oct. 1, 1985).

The crosslinked electrospun polymeric materials of the invention are inthe form of hydrogel fibers that are water insoluble and permeable, andhave viable microbes encapsulated within the fiber structure. The fibersform a film during the electrospinning process. The insoluble nature ofthe material is evidence of crosslinking.

The films have a high permeability and a large surface area.Additionally, the films have an open pore structure. The size of thepores are such that water molecules are able to enter the interior ofthe films, and come into contact the encapsulated microbes. The porosityof the films depends, at least in part, on the density of the fibers.Accordingly, the films can be made more porous by increasing rate andtime of the electrospinning process, as described above.

Films of the invention can have any thickness suitable for a particularend use. For example, the thickness can range from about 0.5 micron toabout 10 cm; more typically, from about 5 to about 10,000 microns; andmost typically, from about 10 to about 5000 microns.

The properties of the films can be adjusted by varying severalparameters, such as, for example, the specific polymer composition,fiber diameter, film morphology, molecular weight distribution, and filmporosity. For example, the fihn can contain fibers having differentmicrobes, or different concentrations of microbes, to form a compositeof different fibers.

In one embodiment, the film can contain multiple layers. The layers canhave the same or different polymer/microbe compositions, fiberdiameters, film morphologies and film porosities. Multi-layered filmsoffer yet another way to control properties of the films. In oneembodiment, microbes can be incorporated between the layers of themulti-layered films in addition to incorporating the microbes into thefiber structures themselves.

The films can be shaped into a variety of useful articles depending upontheir end use or application. For example, the articles can be in theshape of a tube, rod, plug, block, etc.

Microbes

Any useful microbe that a portion or all of which remains viable afterencapsulation within a polymer fiber can be used in the invention.Microbes include any naturally-occurring or genetically-engineered,single cell or multiple cell submicroscopic organism. Some examples ofmicrobes include bacteria, fungi, archaea, protists, and algae. In thisspecification, microbes also include yeast and viruses.

Typically, at least some of the microbes encapsulated in the fibersremain viable with the exclusion of light at 4° C. for at least up toseven days; and at −70° C. for at least up to two months. Examples ofuseful microbes include those that can be used in environmental,medical, energy generation and biosensor applications. The microbes usedin a particular article depend on their end use or application.

For example, films comprising alkane-utilizing bacteria can be used inbioremediation to destroy, or reduce the concentration of, hazardouswastes. For instance, these films can be used to clean up contaminatedsites such as waterways, soils, sludges, and waste streams; and to cleanup chemical spills, leaking underground storage gasoline tanks, andtoxic industrial effluents.

Some examples of suitable alkane-utilizing bacteria include Pseudomonas,Variovorax, Nocardia, Chryseobacterium, Comamonas, Acidovorax,Rhodococcus, Aureobacterium, Micrococcus, Aeromonas, Stenotrophomonas,Sphingobacterium, Shewanella, Phyllobacterium, Clavibacter, Alcaligenes,Gordona, Corynebacterium, Cytophaga Mycobacterium and Nocardia. Examplesof some suitable bacterial species include Pseudomonas rubrisubalbicans,Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas putida, Pseudomonas oleovorans,Variovorax paradoxus, Nocardia asteroides, Nocardia restricta,Chryseobacterium indologenes, Comamonas acidovorans, Acidovoraxdelafieldii, Rhodococcus rhodochrous, Rhodococcus erytlropolis,Aureobacterium esteroaromaticum, Aureobacterium saperdae, Micrococcusvarians, Micrococcus kristinae, Aeromonas caviae, Stenotrophomonasmaltophilia, Sphingobacterium thalpophilum, Clavibacter michiganense,Alcaligenes xylosoxydans, Corynebacterium aquaticum B and Cytophagajohnsonae. Additionally, Clostridium is also useful for remediatingorganic compounds such as biphenyls, chlorinated organics, etc.

Microbes known for their ability in remediation of hazardous metals andradioactive wastes can also be used in the films. Examples of suchmicrobes include members of the genus Clostridium (anaerobic),Shewanella (facultative) and Pseudomonas (aerobic), which can be used toremediate metals such as lead, arsenic, cadmium, mercury, chromium,nickel and zinc; as well as radionuclides such as uranium, plutonium,technetium, etc.

Hyper-metal-accumulating microbes, such as members of the genusCupriavidus, Ralstonia, and Pseudomonas (aerobic), are additionalexamples of useful microbes. These microbes accumulate metals such aszinc, nickel, manganese and cadmium, thereby removing them from theenvironment. Films containing these microbes can be used as a permeablereactor barrier for remediation of contaminated underground water. Suchreactors can be removed periodically and the waste removed as solidwaste.

As a medical application, porous films of the invention are formed intoarticles suitable for implanting into the intestinal tracts of patients.Suitable articles include, for example, scaffolds or patches. Thearticles contain microbes that restore healthy bioflora, and areimplanted into the gastrointestinal tract of patients in need thereof,e.g., patients whose stomach and/or intestinal bioflora are destroyedby, for example, radiation exposure or large doses of antibiotics. Theimplanted articles regenerate healthy bioflora.

Examples of microbes useful for restoration of healthy bioflora (i.e.,probiotic microbes) include strains of the genera Lactobacillus andBifidobacterium. Some examples of species include Lactobacillusacidophilus, Lactobacillus casei, Lactobacillus bulgaricus andStreptococcus thermophilus. An example of probiotic yeast isSaccharomyces boulardii.

The films of the present invention have useful applications in theenergy fields. For example, the films can be used as electrode materialsin bio-film reactors, biofuel cells, microbial fuel cells andfermentation reactors. In such applications, the polymer may beelectrospun with carbon powder or other conducting material. Forexample, a bio-film reactor, may use porous films comprising microbesencapsulated within crosslinked electrospun hydrogel fibers.Encapsulated microbes are viable and are capable of producingmetabolites. Such reactors are useful, for example, in production ofmetabolites like ethanol and pharmaceutical products.

An example of a bacterium that is useful in biofuel applications isZymomonas sp. An example of a species is Zymomonas mobilis. Zymomonashas a very high ethanol yield from glucose, no oxygen requirement (thusnegating the need for expensive oxygen transfer), and high ethanoltolerance. Genetically-engineered Escherichia coli have also been foundto be useful as a biofuel synthesizer. See, for example, Kalscheuer etal., Microbiology 152:2529-2536 (2006); and Qureshi, N. et al.,Institution of Chemical Engineers Transactions. 84(2):114-122 (2006).Another useful microbe in biofuel applications is Saccharomycescerevisiae.

The films of the present invention can also be used as biosensors. Themicrobe functions as the sensing element which then provides anelectronic signal. The signal can be amplified and transduced to acurrent signal or a voltage signal. For instance, a biosensor can have asource terminal and a drain terminal connected to the film. Thebiosensor can further be linked to a detector capable of measuring acurrent-voltage characteristic of the film, and/or linked to anelectrical/electronic device (e.g., light bulb or a liquid crystaldisplay (LCD)).

Examples of bacteria that are useful in the biosensors of the inventioninclude members of genus Bacillus, such as Bacillus Subtilus, for thedetermination of the presence of aspartame (organic). See, for example,Journal Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 21 (Nos. 3-4):180-181(February 1985). Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Trichosporon cutaneum areused in biosensors of the invention for the determination of thepresence of ammonium ions. See, for example,www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1367422?dopt=Abstract.

EXAMPLES

The invention is further illustrated by the following non-limitingexamples.

These examples describe the development and formation, viaelectrospinning, of a novel FDMA fibrous hydrogel material withencapsulated microbes. This is the first insoluble fibrous materialcontaining viable microorganisms that has been reported. The microbes inthe material were found to be viable for over a week in the dry FDMA/PEOblend scaffold at 4° C. and for over two months at −70° C. The FDMAfibers were cross-linked using a water/glycerol solvent mixture, and theAPS, ferrous sulfate and AsA catalytic system. The occurrence of thecrosslinking reaction was demonstrated by TG analysis. The integrity andthe viability of the bacteria were maintained through the cross-linkingprocess.

Materials and Method

Synthesis of FDMA.

The synthesis and characterization of FDMA was described in Sosnik etal. Journal of Biomaterials Science-Polymer Edition 14(3):227-239. Thechemical reaction is shown in FIG. 15. The weight average (M_(w)) andnumber average molecular weight (M_(n)) of FDMA was determined usingcalibrated gel-permeation chromatography (GPC) to be M_(w)=21,900 Da and=12,600 Da (M_(w)/M_(n)=1.3).

Bacterial Cultures.

P. fluorescens (ATCC 55241) were cultured in a medium, 1 liter of whichconsisted of citric acid, 2.0 g; MgSO₄.7H₂O, 0.2 g; NH₄Cl, 1.0 g;KH₂PO₄, 1.0 g; K₂HPO₄, 1.0 g; NaCl, 5.0 g; pH 6.1 adjusted using NaOH.Z. mobilis (ATCC 31821) were cultured in a medium containing glucose, 20gpl; yeast extract, 10 gpl; KH₂PO₄, 2 gpl and whose pH was adjusted to6.0 using NaOH. Functionality was assessed by growing immobilized Z.mobilis and pure culture (control) in a fermentation medium containingglucose, 20 g; yeast extract, 10 g; KH2PO₄, 2 g; and H₂O, 1 liter;pH=6.0. Recombinant E. coli bacteria expressing green fluorescentprotein (GFP) was grown in Luria-Bertani (LB) medium. The cultures weregrown in Erlenmeyer flasks in an incubator at 27±1° C. Typically,cultures at the end of the log phase of growth were used forelectrospinning.

Fabrication of FDMA/PEO Blend Fiber.

An aqueous solution of FDMA is not optimal for electrospinning intofibers, even at high concentrations. Therefore, poly(ethylene oxide)(PEO) (M_(w)=900 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich Inc.) was blended with FDMA tofacilitate the fiber formation during the electrospinning process. Toprepare the electrospinning solution, PEO powder was dissolved indeionized water at the following concentrations: 1 wt %, 2 wt % and 3 wt%. FDMA powder was then added into the PEO solution at a concentrationof 13 wt % and allowed to dissolve for several hours at 4° C. until thesolution became clear. For encapsulation experiment, pre-determinedamount of the bacteria, as required, were dispersed homogenously in theFDMA/PEO solution before electrospinning. The PEO may optionally beremoved by washing with water, preferably deionized water.

The experimental setup of the electrospinning stage was described in Jiet al. Langmuir 22(3): 1321-1328. The fibers were electrospun andcollected on a sterile Si wafer for about 30 minutes to form athree-dimensional (3D) structure.

Cross-linking of the Electrospun FDMA Matrix.

The catalytic system consists of ascorbic acid (AsA) (Aldrich), ferroussulfate (Aldrich) and ammonium persulfate (APS) (Aldrich). The principleof this reaction is similar to the Fenton reaction, as reported earlier(Liang et al. Chemosphere 55(9): 1213-1223.). APS is the free radicalinitiator, ferrous sulfate and AsA are used to catalyze the breakdown ofthe APS and, therefore, to accelerate the cross-linking reaction. Thiscatalytic system is effective at room temperature even if theconcentration of the initiator is very low. However, for the system tobe highly efficient, the ratio of the APS, AsA and ferrous sulfate hadto be fine tuned.

AsA, APS and ferrous sulfate solution was prepared freshly in deionizedwater and pre-determined amounts of those solutions were then added tothe glycerol/deionized water solvent at differing glycerol:water ratios.The electrospun fibers (along with the Si wafer support) were placedinto a glass vial containing 2 ml of the cross-linking solution andallowed stand overnight at room temperature. The cross-linked membranewas then washed three times with deionized water to remove unreactedmonomers, and catalyst.

Finally, the membrane was soaked in deionized water for 24 hours toensure complete extraction of the PEO and fully swell the scaffold.

Characterization of Electrospun FDMA Fiber Mats.

The surface morphology of the electrospun FDMA/PEO blend fibers and FDMAfibers (with and without bacteria) were characterized using scanningelectron microscopy (SEM) (LEO 1550, LEO, Germany). The swollen FDMAfibers were freeze dried (Consol 1.5, Virtis Inc. NY) at −40° C.,followed by lyophilization. Samples were sputter-coated with gold for 15seconds twice prior to SEM imaging. The fiber diameter distributions ofthe FDMA/PEO blend scaffolds and cross-linked FDMA scaffolds werecalculated by analyzing the SEM images using Image Tool (The Universityof Texas Health Science Center in San Antonio) in a manner similar tothat described by Boland E D et al., Journal of MacromolecularScience-Pure and Applied Chemistry 38(12): 1231-1243 (2001).

Thermogravimetric (TG) measurements were conducted to analyze thethermal behavior of the electrospun FDMA/PEO blend fibers, prior to andfollowing crosslinking. TG measurements were conducted in nitrogen gasat a heating rate of 5° C./min in the temperature range between 50° C.and 500° C. using a Mettler. Toledo TGAISDTA 851 thermal analyzer.Samples with a weight of approximately 15 mg were loaded in a SiO₂crucible under dry conditions.

Characterization of Microbes.

The viability of the microbes was assessed using the LIVE/DEAD®BacLight™ bacterial viability kits (Molecular Probes, OR). Live microbes(intact cell membranes) stain fluorescent green, while dead microbes(damaged cell membranes) stain fluorescent red. Live and dead bacteriawere later viewed simultaneously by Leica TCS SP2 laser scanningconfocal microscopy (LSCM) (Leica Microsystem Inc., Bannockburn, Ill.).

The morphologies of the bacteria inside the FDMA/PEO fibers werecharacterized both by LSCM and SEM. For LSCM, bacteria were spun downfrom culture media, stained with bacterial viability kits, and thenmixed with the FDMA/PEO solution, prior to electrospinning. While forGFP E. coli, GFP was excited at 488 nm with an argon ion laser sourcewithout any staining. For SEM studies, the bacteria were rinsed withdeionized water twice, stained with 2% (w/v) uranyl acetate for 2minutes at room temperature, spun down and mixed with the FDMA/PEOelectrospinning solution. To image the bacteria inside the cross-linkedFDMA fiber by SEM, the swollen fibers were freeze dried and coated withgold as described above.

Cytoxicity and Storage Evaluation.

The viability of the bacteria, before and after electrospinning, wasevaluated after various times of electrospinning. Bacteria containingfibers were stored under the exclusion of light at 4° C. for up to 7days and at −70° C. for up to 2 months. Two methods were used to analyzethe bacterial survival rate. The encapsulated microbes were stained withLIVE/DEAD® BacLight bacterial viability kits immediately after they wereliberated from the FDMA/PEO blend fibers and then observed under LSCM.Photomicrographs of the stained bacteria were obtained. The number ofbacteria alive was averaged over several views of the same condition.Bacterium counting at each time point was performed in triplicates. Inthe case of Z. mobilis, the uncross-linked fibers were dissolved insterile bacteria culture media and/or fermentation media describedearlier, whereby the immobilized microorganisms were released from thefibers. As controls, free culture and microorganisms mixed withpolymeric material (prior to electrospinning) were used as inoculums.After incubation, the metabolic activity of the Z. mobilis was tested byanalyzing the spent media for residual glucose and ethanol concentrationusing high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The cytotoxicity ofthe chemicals and the cross-linking process to the bacteria were alsoevaluated using the LIVE/DEAD® BacLight™ bacterial viability kits asexplained above.

A schematic describing the different stages of the process that wereundertaken in this study to generate the biohybrid material is presentedin FIG. 1. Furthermore, the various stages at which the fibers werecharacterized and analyzed are also indicated on the schematic.

The FDMA/PEO blend solutions with different weight ratios, increasingfrom 13:1 to 13:3, were electrospun to fabricate fibrous membranescaffolds as shown in FIGS. 2A-C. At an FDMA/PEO weight ratio of 13:1,very few electrospun fibers were generated and they showed abeads-on-string morphology with a high beads density. As the FDMA/PEOweight ratio increased from 13:1 to 13:3, the density of beads decreasedand a uniform fibrous scaffold was obtained at an optimized weight ratioof 13:3 (FIGS. 2C and 2D), that was used in all further experiments.

The water soluble nature of FDMA presents a great challenge as anycontact with water can immediately destroy the fibrous structure andtherefore highly limits the application of this polymer. Cross-linkingthe fibers after electrospinning will create hydrogel fibers withimproved resistance to water. Such cross-linked fibers with encapsulatedmicroorganisms can be used in various applications. However, FDMA cannotbe cross-linked using conventional cross-linking approaches such asexposing the fibers to a water-based cross-linking solution (Ji et al.Biomaterials 27(20):3782-3792 (2006)). Also, the non-volatile nature ofthe cross-linking agent prevents the use of vapor-phase cross-linkingmethod (Zhang et al., Polymer 47(8):2911-2917 (2006); Zhong, et al.Materials Science & Engineering C-Biomimetic and Supramolecular Systems27(2):262-266 (2007); and Vondran et al., Journal of Applied PolymerScience 109(2):968-975 (2008)). Several studies have described variousother methods of creating cross-linked fibers; such as heat (Ding et al.Journal of Polymer Science Part B-Polymer Physics 40(13): 1261-1268(2002); Chen et al., Journal of Polymer Science Part a-Polymer Chemistry42(24):6331-6339 (2004); Li et al., Nanotechnology 16(12):2852-2860(2005); Jin et al., Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics206(17):1745-1751 (2005); and Li et al., Polymer 46(14):5133-5139 (2005)or ultraviolet (LTV) radiation (Kim et al., Macromolecules38(9):3719-3723 (2005); Zeng et al., Macromolecular Rapid Communications26(19):1557-1562 (2005); Choi et al., Journal of Applied Polymer Science101(4):2333-2337 (2006); and Ignatova et al., Carbohydrate Researche:2098-2107 (2006)) to initiate the cross-linking reaction during orafter the synthesis of the fibers. Heat and UV light, however, haveknown microbicidal properties and thus are not suitable for use in thisstudy.

It is preferable to cross-link FDMA fibers in an organic solvent toprevent its dissolution. Glycerol was chosen as the organic solvent dueto its low toxicity to microorganisms. In fact, glycerol is used topreserve microorganisms at −70° C. While pure glycerol can be used, itdoes not lead to free-radical polymerization. In order to initiatefree-radical polymerization, the fibers were exposed to a solution ofglycerol and water containing a redox system consisting of ammoniumpersulfate (APS), ascorbic acid (AsA) and ferrous sulfate. Asanticipated, the water/glycerol solution did not dissolve theelectrospun fibers and allowed the subsequent cross-linking reaction toproceed. Furthermore, the low toxicity of the chosen redox systemallowed the microbes to survive.

The as-spun FDMA/PEO blend scaffold with or without bacteria wascross-linked and subsequently soaked in deionized water to remove PEOand obtain an FDMA fibrous scaffold. The morphological change of FDMAfibrous scaffold (without bacteria) after PEO extraction is shown inFIG. 3. SEM (Scanning electron microscopy) images showed that thecross-linked FDMA scaffold still maintained the three-dimensional (3D)porous structure after PEO extraction. This structure is in agreementwith the morphology of freeze-dried cross-linked fibers that wereobtained via electrospinning of other polymeric materials (Ji et al.,Biomaterials 27(20):3782-3792 (2006)). The porous structure was not onlyseen on the surface of the electrospun samples (FIGS. 3A and 3B), butthrough the whole thickness of the sample, as apparent from FIG. 3C,which shows the cross-section (edge) of the scaffold. However, thepresence of significant amount of water during cross-linking treatmenthad affected the fiber morphology to some extent. This was reflected bythe fact that fibers at junctions were fused together forming bindings.The change in the distribution of fiber sizes before and after PEOextraction, analyzed using UTHSCSA Image Tool, are shown in FIGS. 4A and4B, respectively. Before PEO extraction, more than 85% of fibers werewithin the diameter range between 500 and 900 nm. After PEO extraction,the distribution of fiber diameter became much wider and more than 74%of fibers were within the diameter range between 1 and 2 μm.

The TG thermograms of raw FDMA powder, the raw PEO powder, theelectrospun FDMA/PEO blend scaffolds and cross-linked FDMA fibers areshown in FIG. 5. TG analysis showed that the thermal temperature ofFDMA/PEO scaffolds was approximately 350° C., indicating its thermalstability in the temperature range where microorganisms are used(usually lower than 45° C.). Also, it should be noted that the thermaldegradation temperature of the FDMA/PEO blend was between the thermaldegradation temperature of pure PEO powder and FDMA powder, suggestingthe mixture of PEO and FDMA in the electrospun blend scaffold. On theother hand, TG analysis showed that the thermal degradation temperatureof cross-linked FDMA scaffolds increased from 200° C. to 350° C. Theincrease of the degradation temperature can be readily attributed to thepresence of inter-chain molecular cross-links.

The above method was then used to encapsulate rod-shaped bacteria in apolymer matrix, which forms a composite fiber during electrospinning.The bacteria were initially suspended in the FDMA/PEO aqueous solution,in which they were found to be randomly oriented (FIG. 6A). Afterelectrospinning, the rod-like bacteria were found to be oriented, mainlyalong the direction of the fibers (FIGS. 6B & C). Lower magnificationimage (FIG. 6C) showed that the microbes were distributed over theentire area of the electrospun fibers. With higher magnification usingconfocal microscopy, the individual bacterium could be discerned withinthese fibers. FIG. 6D shows a representative cell of the P. fluorescensbacterium inside the electrospun FDMA/PEO fibers. The microorganismswere found to be fully encapsulated by the fibers and oriented in thelongitudinal direction of the fiber. Similar morphology was alsoobserved when Z. mobilis was encapsulated in the electrospun fiber asshown in FIG. 6E. In all these circumstances, the fiber diameter werefound to be only slightly larger than the average size of the microbesused, thereby encapsulating the bacterium with only a thin layer of thepolymeric material.

To obtain higher magnification images and to confirm the cellularintegrity of bacteria within the single fiber, SEM microscopy wasrequired. To this extent, uranyl acetate was used as a contrast agent todifferentiate the microbe from the polymer. FIG. 6E presents SEM imagesof uranyl acetate stained P. fluorescens prior to and afterelectrospinning. FIG. 6E clearly shows that the polymeric matrix hasfully encapsulated the bacterial cell causing a local widening of thefiber. This image further confirms that, during the electrospinningprocess, the bacteria were oriented in the direction of the fibers.

Furthermore, GFP E. coli were also encapsulated using this process andexamined using confocal microscopy. While, the innate fluorescence ofGFP E. coli was used to easily image the encapsulated bacteria underconfocal microscopy images, the intensity of the fluorescence was weakerthan those obtained from bacterial cells before electrospinning (FIG.12). This is only expected as the intensity of fluorescence is decreasedby the polymeric capsule around the bacterial cell. Encapsulation of E.coli shows the broad applicability of this process.

It was found that exposure to FDMA and PEO had little or no effect onthe viability of the bacteria, even when the bacteria were maintained inthis solution for up to a week before assaying them. As described above,electrospinning is an efficient method to encapsulate bacteria in thepolymer fiber. However, in the electrospinning process, the removal ofwater by rapid evaporation is anticipated to cause drastic changes inthe osmotic environment of the organism (Gensheimer et al., AdvancedMaterials 19(18):480). Even more, an electric field is generated byapplying a high voltage between the metal capillary and the collector,which may be harmful to the bacteria. In the present study, Z. mobilissuspended in a polymeric solution were electrospun, stained withbacterial viability kits, and examined immediately afterelectrospinning. The images obtained before and after electrospinningare shown in FIGS. 7 A-E. FIG. 7B showed that most (about 93%) of thebacteria were viable immediately after the electrospinning process(viewed as green in the images), before conducting the cross-linking andPEO extraction steps. When these electrospun fibers were dissolved inculture medium, the bacteria were released from the fibers and theirgrowth was monitored at 600 nm (FIGS. 13 and 14). It was seen that whilethe electrospun microorganisms had a slightly longer lag-phase ofgrowth, their growth was barely affected by electrospinning.

The effect of storage on the viability of encapsulated bacteria is animportant issue for their potential deployment in industrial-scaleprocesses, since the application of these novel bioactive materialsrequires the bio-hybrid system to be intact and functional(microorganism to be viable) at the time of use at a desired site(Salalha et at, Nanotechnology 17(18):4675-4681 (2006)). To test theviability of the microbes in the fiber over time, thebacteria-containing scaffolds were maintained under saturated humidityconditions and under exclusion of light at 4° C., for up to 7 days.After 1, 3 and 7 days, bacteria encapsulated FDMA/PEO fiber weredissolved in the deionized water to liberate the bacteria. It wasdetermined that although the viability of bacteria decreased over time,significant amount of the bacteria remained viable: ˜62%, 47% and 23%were found to be viable after 1 day (FIG. 7C), 3 days (FIG. 7D), and 7days (FIG. 7E), respectively. Further, to test whether the functionality(metabolic pathway) of the microbe was affected, the uncross-linkedfibers containing encapsulated microbes were suspended in growth mediaand the metabolic produces were assessed. Z. mobilis is well known forits ethanologenic activity and thus the amount ethanol produced (vol %)was assessed. The results showed that the metabolic activity of themicroorganism was not affected by the electrospinning process, and theamount of ethanol produced by the encapsulated microbes was found to bein good agreement with the amount produced by un-encapsulated (freeculture) control (FIG. 16). This was found to be the case after one weekof storage at −4° C. and up to two months of storage at −70° C. It isthus apparent that the electrospinning process does not adversely affectthe metabolic pathway of the microbes.

Although the cross-linking treatment improved the water-resistance andthermal properties of the electrospun FDMA fibrous membranes, aneventual adverse effect is that such treatment could be cytotoxic tobacteria encapsulated in the fiber. The cyto compatibility of thecross-linking step is critical to the ultimate success of this study.Although polymerization of monomers with carbon-carbon double bonds hasbeen extensively investigated in the past usingphotopolymerization/photo-crosslinking, this method cannot be used forthe preparation of cross-linked FDMA fibers encapsulated with bacteria.This is not only because the UV light has known microbicidal properties,but also because photopolymerization cannot be carried out uniformly ina large or thick system. Furthermore, the light penetration depth isquite limited and light distribution is inhomogeneous. Chemicalcross-linking seems to be a more suitable method for the purpose of thisstudy, although it could be potentially toxic when the bacteriaencapsulated in the electrospun fibers are exposed to the cross-linkingagent. The most commonly used free radical initiator consists ofN,N,N′,N′-tetramethylethylenediamine (TEMED) and peroxodisulfate(potassium or ammonium salt). The function of TEMED is to accelerate thehomolytic scission of the peroxodisulfate anion yielding the TEMED freeradical, which initiates the polymerization of the methacrylate groups.TEMED, due to its high efficiency, is the most widely used free-radicalpolymerization catalyst. However, TEMED has been observed to be toxic tomicrobes.

Previous literature has also reported that FDMA could be cross-linked byfree radical polymerization at 37° C. using a redox system whichincluded APS (Ammonium persulfate) and sodium metabisulfite. However,sodium metabisulfite releases sulfur dioxide (SO₂) when exposed towater. To prevent any interference from gas evolution and possiblechanges in the pH due to SO₂ on the cross-linking reaction, the systemcomprising of ferrous sulfate and AsA was used instead of sodiummetabisulfite. Ferrous sulfate is a component of several bacterialgrowth media and unlike metabisulfate does not degrade in water. Theconcentration of the APS, ferrous sulfate and AsA was adjusted to as lowas possible, by iterative experimentation, to minimize the oxidation ofmicrobes by APS.

The Z. mobilis encapsulated FDMA cross-linked fibers were washed withdeionized water three times and stained with LIVE/DEAD® BacLight™bacterial viability kits to visualize the bacteria under the confocalmicroscope. The confocal microscopy image shown in FIG. 8 revealed thatabout 40% of the bacteria were still alive after the electrospinning andcross-linking process.

To verify encapsulation of Z. mobilis cells by the FDMA fiber,freeze-dried cross-linked FDMA fibers encapsulating the bacteria wereexamined. FIG. 9A shows a homogeneous distribution of bacteria in thecross-linked material. Microbes were found to be encapsulated both atthe junctions where fibers fused together (FIG. 9B) as well as in singlefiber (FIG. 9C), with the cellular integrity of the microorganismappearing to be well preserved, regardless of the location.

By means of confocal microscopy, E. coli could be detected immediatelyafter cross-linking inside the fibers. To confirm the presence of the E.coli within the cross-linked fibers, it was necessary to study amonolayer of fibers as deposited on a silicon wafer. Thus, the edges ofthe cross-linked hydrogel scaffold deposited on silicon, which tend tohave fewer layers and therefore are thinner than the center, werestudied under confocal microscope as shown in FIG. 10A. The image of E.coli in cross-linked fibers (FIG. 10A) was brighter than in the dryblend FDMA/PEO fibers (FIG. 12). This may be due to the swelling of thecross-linked fibers in the deionized water and the formation of thehydrogel material, as well as the removal of the high molecular weightPEO via extraction in water. With higher magnification, single bacteriumwithin the cross-linked fibers could be observed. FIG. 10B shows thatthe E. coli to be oriented in the longitudinal direction of the fiber,with no morphological changes being observed due to the cross-linkingreaction.

1-35. (canceled)
 36. A method for removing pollutants from an aqueous environment, the method comprising contacting the pollutants with a porous film that comprises crosslinked electrospun hydrogel fibers wherein microbes are encapsulated within the crosslinked electrospun hydrogel fibers, wherein the crosslinked electrospun hydrogel fibers are water insoluble and permeable, and wherein the microbes are viable and capable of bioremediation.
 37. The method of claim 36 wherein the microbes comprise members of the genus Shewanella. 38-39. (canceled)
 40. A method of regenerating healthy bioflora, the method comprising implanting into the gastrointestinal tract of patients in need thereof a porous film that comprises crosslinked electrospun hydrogel fibers, wherein microbes are encapsulated within the crosslinked electrospun hydrogel fibers, wherein the crosslinked electrospun hydrogel fibers are water insoluble and permeable, and wherein the microbes are viable and capable of regenerating healthy bioflora in the gastrointestinal tract of the patient.
 41. The method of claim 40 wherein the microbe is selected from strains of the genera Lactobacillus or Bifidobacterium.
 42. The method of claim 40 wherein the microbe is selected from the group consisting of Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus casei, Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus.
 43. The method of claim 40 wherein the microbe is Saccharomyces boulardii. 44-45. (canceled)
 46. The method of claim 36 wherein the film has an open pore structure.
 47. The method of claim 36 wherein the crosslinked electrospun hydrogel fibers comprise polyethers.
 48. The method of claim 47 wherein the polyethers comprise polyethylene oxide, polypropylene oxide, mixtures thereof, or co-polymers thereof.
 49. The method of claim 48 wherein the copolymer is a triblock copolymer of polyethylene oxide-polypropylene oxide-polyethylene oxide.
 50. The method of claim 49 wherein the polyethers comprise a mixture of the triblock copolymer and polyethylene oxide.
 51. The method of claim 47, wherein the polyethers are functionalized with terminal acrylate or methacrylate groups.
 52. The method of claim 36 wherein the crosslinked electrospun hydrogel fibers comprise a mixture of F127-DMA and polyethylene oxide.
 53. The method of claim 36 wherein the crosslinked electrospun hydrogel fibers comprise glycosaminoglycans.
 54. The method of claim 53 wherein the glycosaminoglycans comprise functionalized hyaluronic acid.
 55. The method of claim 36 wherein the microbes are Pseudomonas sp.
 56. The method of claim 36 wherein the microbes produce ethanol.
 57. The method of claim 36 wherein the microbes maintain viability for at least about one week at 4° C.
 58. The method of claim 36, wherein the crosslinked electrospun hydrogel fibers have diameters in the range of about 0.6 microns to about 5 microns.
 59. The method of claim 36, wherein the porous film has a thickness in the range of about 1 micron to about 10 cm. 